Emma Goldman: The Most Dangerous Woman in America

It is not without reason that Emma Goldman was quoted as being “the most dangerous woman in America” at her time (qtd in Moritz & Mortiz, 2001). Extremely critical of social arrangements, she was particularly known for her political actions and speeches (Moritz & Mortiz, 2001). Furthermore, as an anarchist, Emma Goldman viewed the state, the church, and social conventions as “artificial restraints which prevent humans from achieving their full potential” (Morton, 1992) — an ideology which also perfectly explains women’s oppression.

Emma Goldman was born in an Orthodox Jewish family on June 27, 1869, in present-day Lithuania (Goldman, Emma; 2001). Her father was a man of traditions who did not think that Emma should get an education as a woman (Moritz & Mortiz, 2001). However, Emma finally went to college in Konigsberg and St. Petersburg, where she was introduced to some radical movements and to the nihilism ideology (closely linked to anarchism) (Moritz & Mortiz, 2001). In 1885, she immigrated to the United States with her half-sister in order to avoid the marriage that her father had arranged for her (Goldman, Emma; 2001). But in the United States, Goldman did not live an American dream; she was constrained to sew for ten hours a day in a factory, only to get an underpaid wage (Goldman, Emma; 2001).

In 1889, Goldman moved to New York City where she joined the anarchist movement (Emma Goldman Collection, n.d.). She later traveled throughout the United States to advocate “the anarchist philosophy, women's rights, and social issues such as birth control” (Emma Goldman Collection, n.d.). For doing so, Goldman was many times incarcerated. In prison, however, she made good use of her time by learning to become a nurse (Goldman, Emma; 2001). She then later worked as a nurse in New York’s deprived neighborhoods where she witnessed the effects of the lack of birth control and having no access to abortion. As a result, she began to campaign all over the U.S. to address these problems (Shaw & Lee, 2009). Emma Goldman was finally imprisoned and deported to Russia for her involvement in the movement against World War I (Shaw & Lee, 2009). There, she became disillusioned with communism and finally moved to England to support the anti-Soviet campaign (Goldman, Emma; 2001).

Emma Goldman’s most significant achievements include a monthly anarchist magazine which she began publishing in 1906 (Morton, 1992). Mother Earth contained anarchist articles, as well as articles “on social issues such as birth control, the reform of laws affecting marriage, women’s sexual freedom, and the upbringing of children” (Goldman, Emma; 2001). Her determination in advocating birth control despite its illegality at the time is another of her significant achievements. Emma Goldman was also a strong advocate of free love and argued against the oppression of the institution of marriage on women (Moritz & Mortiz, 2001). Finally, Emma Goldman developed the anarcho-feminist doctrine which argues that feminists should fight against all forms of hierarchy as patriarchy is the original form of all oppressive authorities (Anarcho-feminism).

Although she lived during the first-wave feminism, being an anarchist, Goldman saw the government as the ultimate source of oppression on individuals and, therefore, totally disapproved of the women’s suffrage movement (Goldman, Emma; 2001). During the second-wave feminism, however, Emma Goldman’s doctrine was again at the center of attention as the movement advocated for the same women’s rights which Goldman spent a lifetime promoting (Goldman, Emma; 2001).

References

Emma Goldman Collection. (n.d.). University of Illinois at Chicago. Retrieved May 27, 2013, from http://www.uic.edu/depts/lib/specialcoll/services/rjd/findingaids/EGoldmanb.html

Goldman, Emma. (2001). In Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers. Retrieved from http://0-www.credoreference.com.library.capilanou.ca/entry/abcwsr/goldman_emma

Moritz, T., & Moritz, A. F. (2001). The World's Most Dangerous Woman: a New Biography of Emma Goldman. Vancouver: Subway Books.

Morton, M. J. (1992). Emma Goldman and the American Left: Nowhere at Home. New York, N.Y.: Twayne Publishers.

Shaw, S. M., & Lee, J. (2009). Women's Voices, Feminist Visions: Classic and Contemporary Readings (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Magazines: A Means to Consumerism

 

On the surface, a magazine looks like a women’s best friend: offering inspirational images and friendly advices on how to look, feel their best, and on how to be successful in every aspect of their lives (Nelson IX). People commonly read magazines to inform themselves, relax, and to be inspired. Readers are particularly attracted to magazines by envy for what they offer and by their desire for self-improvement (Nelson XII). Finally, magazines are also a source of distraction from their everyday life (Nelson 39). And for these reasons, readers would like to believe that magazines are created in their interests and in consideration of their “lifestyles and well-being” (Nelson XII). However, a study conducted by the University of Missouri has found that the exposure to magazines diminishes self-esteem (Holmes). Indeed, the physical and lifestyle ideals that magazines expose to the readers are fare from representing the majority of people. Therefore, they trigger a frustration and a need for improvement. However, the reader simultaneously finds solutions for his or her new needs in the products that are advertised by magazines. Indeed, magazines are not merely the source of their low self-esteem; they also hold the apparent solution to this problem. And by this simple process, magazines ultimately lead readers to consumption.

Magazines, like other forms of media, are a means to the process of socialization “by which people learn their culture and gain self-awareness” (Cook, “Socialization”).  And for everyone, socialization is an essential and inevitable step as it teaches the norms and ideas to subscribe to for living in our society. In magazines, the patronizing tone used sets these cultural standards that readers see as the ideas and the norms to conform to. Furthermore, it is impossible to escape their socialization effect. Jennifer Nelson, a former magazine journalist and the author of Airbrushed Nation, a book about the backstage of the magazine industry, explains that “whether we believe we’re being influence or not [by magazines], the messaging is nonetheless subconscious” (Nelson 61). Indeed, many scientific studies have shown that magazines have the capacity to influence their readers on a deep level. For example, being exposed to a word or an image for “few thousandths of a second” can alter the reader’s behaviour (Nelson 61). And because readers approach magazines as a form of relaxation, they are even more easily influenced (Nelson 61).

Regarding the socialization from magazines, a cultural studies approach of this phenomenon highlights that the “texts” (messages, ideas, images, etc.) found in magazines relate to each other to form a greater “discourse” on how we ought to live, to look, etc. Ultimately, these discourses shape reality by influencing their receivers (Cook, “Theories”). In the documentary Killing Us Softly 4, Jean Kilbourne explains this process by saying that the images of women in magazines create a “pattern of what it means to be a woman” and therefore influences women to look and act according to this standard.

However, the norms that are presented by magazine are stereotypical versions of men and women (Killing Us Softly 4). Therefore, men and women are influenced to act, dress, and see themselves as having to become like these stereotypical versions. Furthermore, magazines only show a certain version of concepts, such as love, relationships, sexuality, femininity, masculinity, etc. and ignore the different possibilities to approach these ideas (Killing Us Softly 4). The socialization of magazine will also guide women to be interested and priorities certain things over others. For example, magazines tell women that the most important to them should be their physical appearance, which leads to the consumption of beauty and diet products (Killing Us Softly 4). In fact, magazines mostly prioritize interests that will ultimately lead to purchasable commodities, as opposed to non-materialistic interests (e.g. meditation, walking, gardening, creative writing, etc.).

Magazines send many messages which assume that their readers are imperfect as they are and, therefore, that they need self-improvement (Nelson 38). For example, this message is presumed in an ad for weigh loss or teeth whitening. From the 200 pages of the September Good Housekeeping issue, 51 mention anti-aging techniques: from cosmetics, to fashion, to food, etc., everything is meant to advise the reader on how to look younger. As if all a woman over 30 years old should do, had to do with trying to look younger because her normal state is unacceptable.

Furthermore, there seems to be no way to arriving at stage when one does not need any more improvement. This tendency is notably illustrated through the change of model through time: they have become skinner, younger, are pictured in sexier ways, and with technology, they look prettier (Killing Us Softly 4). Furthermore, because trends are constantly changing, there is no end to what readers need to buy, which perpetuate a constant dissatisfaction unless they conform to this consumerism propaganda.

Another message which comes with self-improvement is that the reader will become a better person if he or she changes physically or if he or she buys the right products. For example, in Men’s Health, an ad for the magazine mentions “BUILD A BETTER YOU! The FAST, EASY way to: Pack on Muscle, Blast Fat, Make Abs Pop, Enjoy More Sex, Hotter Sex” (118). This ad is claiming that you can easily and quickly improve yourself  ̶  not only your body but your entire person  ̶  by building muscles. Furthermore, the message implies that this improvement will lead to having more and sexier sexual partners. Similarly, an ad in Shape called “change your life” tells the story of a woman who lost a lot of weight and claims that it has changed her “into the wife, mother, and woman [she] deserve[s] to be” (151). These ads are very much advocating a superficial way to improving oneself; as if a physical change will transform one’s life for the better.

Indeed, magazines also advocate that readers can buy their way to success. For example, an article in Seventeen magazine entitled “Ace your face!” advocates mostly make-up as “midterm must-haves” (106). As if looking pretty during your midterm will guarantee you to pass. Similarly, the same magazine offers an article called “snack your way to an A” which recommends eating nachos, biscuits, whipped cream, cereals, and chocolate mousse during study session (125). The article mentions “wouldn’t it be great if you could just eat something to feel smarter?!? Your wish is granted with these yummy bites that will get you through any study session” (125). Again, this message suggests that readers can become smart effortlessly and quickly by consuming products, in this case junk food. Furthermore, this article is posted on the opposite page of an article giving advices on how to get “fierce, flat abs” (see below picture) (124). The contradiction between what these two articles offer (junk food and ads) and their proximity supports the idea that magazines are the simultaneous source of frustrations and their solutions.

The most obvious source of frustration from magazine is the physical standard that they impose. For women, this socially constructed image of beauty is particularity alarming. Indeed, women models are too often picturing the same kind of women: tall, white (or with white features), beautiful, young, rich, skinny, and sexy. These idealized images are also often quite extreme. For example, In Vogue, an ad for the magazine “editor’s eye” section pictures a dangerously skinny girl (see below picture on left) (52). A Lancôme ad in Elle shows the face of a model that appears to have absolutely no defect, no pores, no spots, absolutely no imperfection (2). And the model on the front cover of Shape is extremely fit; however, she has big breasts. This scenario is very improbable in terms of body type. Her breast size is more likely to due to a cosmetic surgery. Eva Mendes, in the “Angel” perfume ad, is pictured with a large breasts and a skinny waist, and both haven probably been digitally altered (see below picture on right) (Marie Claire 19). A Study published in the Women’s Psychology Quarterly journal found that “idealized media images translate into body dissatisfaction for many women” (Tiggemann and Polivy). Furthermore, these models represent ideals that are either dangerous for one’s health, impossible to achieve, or requires plastic surgery. Furthermore, even if models show more natural women, their type only represent a tiny percentage of the population in terms of body shape, age, weight, race, class, etc. Therefore, they frustrate most women who will want to achieve this model of beauty  ̶  a frustration that is meant to lead to consumption.

There is also a lot a pressure in men’s magazine to have a fit body. One article of Men’s Health even mentions “if you weren’t born with a mannequin’s body, fake it” (68). The message here is that everyone should look like a mannequin. Furthermore, men are often pictured as being muscular and manly in magazines. However, men have less pressure over their age and face. For example, the latest Chanel ads features an older Brad Pitt with unapologetic of his signs of age (Marie Claire 14). Nonetheless, Men’s magazines also portray a stereotypical model of being a man. It is particularly illustrated with very muscular men, men wearing suits, and men having half-naked girls around them. However, men magazines are especially filled with things that you should have and the pressure to be successful. For instance, suits, cars, watches, motorbikes, etc. Here, the message is clear: buy these things are you will be successful in your career and with girls. And the key seems to be able to have all these things quickly and effortlessly, like wining at the lottery. An image that illustrates this philosophy very well is the ad for the Paco Rabanne perfume “1 million” which displays a young man dressed in a smoking and snapping his fingers (see below picture on left) (123). As if it will make all these things appear. Indeed, on top of the physical pressure, magazine also generally feed a need to quickly get rich. For example, an ad for Express (a website which offers online clothes shopping) shows a young couple in front of an old and romantic building; the men dressed in a tuxedo and the women dressed in an evening gown (see below picture on right) (Mary Claire 75). Because most people do not live in such luxury, it will frustrate the readers and, again lead him or her to consumption to live in illusion of being rich.

The techniques used to make readers want to buy the products pictured in magazines are very thought through. For example, magazines often features perfume ads with samples of perfume that, once opened, will impregnate the whole magazine so that each time you pick it up and flicker through, you will be immerged by this scent. The reason why magazine do it is because “scientific studies show scent can sweeten pleasant feelings […] that entice [the reader] to the products they’re selling” (Nelson 49).

The placement of editorial and advertising content is also one of these techniques to lead the reader to consume (Nelson 55). Indeed, it is even sometimes hard to distinguish an ad from the article. For example, InStyle magazine features a beauty article showing ten make-up trends (147).  On the opposite page of this article, the reader can simultaneously see a Maybelline ad for eye shadow make-up (146). In an even more obvious way, an column about the backstage make-up tricks is placed in between two make-up ads for Revlon (below picture) (InStyle 66-67). By doing so, magazines disregard the official guidelines established by the “American Society of Magazine” which suggest that “editors and publishers should avoid positioning advertisements near editorial pages that discuss or show the same or similar products sold by the advertiser” (qtd. in Nelson 69).

To advertise products without using ads, magazines sometimes pictures products without any explanation of their actual eventual benefits. An obvious example of this tendency is shown on the image below. For this picture, Elle magazine created sort of robots made of beauty products (252). As if a picture of these products in the magazine was enough to legitimize their benefits for the reader/consumer. Furthermore, whole sections of magazines dedicated to recommending products. These sections are not exactly ads but their purpose is also to sell products. However, these products have the advantage of being backed by the recommendation of the magazine. Indeed, these items or presupposed to be in trend or to have attributes that will benefit the reader. For example, a section of InStyle magazine is simply called “Shop It! (194). It features shoes from $79 to $1,250 (with an average of $556 for a pair of shoes) (194-195). However, these prices are clearly more expensive then shoes found in most stores. Therefore, advertising them is not in the advantage of the reader.

Magazines are the second most common medium for product placement deals after television. For example, the magazines used for this research show an average of 41.6% of pages entirely dedicates to ads. By counting pages recommending products, the rate increase up to 77% for Cosmopolitan. Most magazines also featured a “shopping directory” (Marie Claire 246). The reason for this is affluence of advertisements in magazines is notably due to the fact that magazines publishers now need advertisers. Indeed, since the digital era, magazines sales keep dropping and their publishing companies are struggling to remain in business (Matsa, Sasseen, and Mitchell, “Are Hopes”). Furthermore, a survey from The State of the News Media 2013 show that there is a strong correlation between the revenue of publishing companies and the rate of “ad pages” (Matsa, Sasseen, and Mitchell, “By the Numbers”). Therefore, magazines are dependent on advertisers. However, Nelson suggests that, the battle for placement of ads is now also becomes an in-house issue between the advertising sales department who tries to keep the revenues flowing to remain in business, and the magazine’s editorial department who tries “to maintain integrity” (Nelson 70).

There are different ways to remediate to the deceiving role that magazine play nowadays. For example, magazines and brands could offer more transparency about their relationship (Nelson 62). They could also picture models that look more realistic and natural. This solution could even be in the interest of advertisers as “some recent research has found that that […] consumers are less interested in buying products that make them feel insecure” (body Image). This might be the reason why some brands are already making progress in this matter. For example, Calvin Klein published an ad in Vogue showing a curvier model (55). Other brands are choosing to picture unconventional forms of beauty such as the androgen model in a Bottega Veneta ad (see picture below) (Vogue 129). Furthermore, models from different backgrounds are pictured in ads, notably Asian and African-American, but also other race such as an Indian woman for the fashion photo shoot Marie Claire (182-189).

Other than images, magazines could also choose to feature “real stories” that are interesting and empowering for their readers (Stein). An example of these kind of articles would be the one found in Marie Claire entitled “Do you measure up?”. Displaying a picture of Barbie dolls, this article discusses the problem of expectations in our society (144). It explains how women “are inundated with so many cues as to what defines a successful woman today” and how “it’s downright impossible to figure out which attributes are truly attainable” (145). If article such as this one could become more common in magazines, it could empower readers to realize that the models and stereotypes should only be regarded as aspirational models, not as norms. Similarly, Seventeen magazine features an article called “The time bomb boyfriend” discusses the topic of boyfriends abusing their girlfriends (162). Article like this one can make girls understand that it is dangerous to become a sexual object for men, although magazines tend to promote this idea (Killing Us Softly 4).

Another solution that could prevent magazines from having such impact on people would be to educate on how to analysis images. Nelson suggests educating girls about what is implied by magazine pictures so that it is easier for them to withdraw themselves from the unrealistic world (XIII). Indeed, media have shifted from a print to an image bases system of communication and, although students are thought to analyse written text, they are not necessarily taught to analysis images (The Strength to Resist).

Notably because of its socialization effect, magazines are a representation of a society’s culture. Publishing companies used to have power to shaping this representation; however, nowadays, this power has mostly shifted to advertisers as they have so much influence on the content of magazines. Advertisers are now imposing their own ideas, values, and norms, and are consequently trying to turn the reader into a “bigger and better consumers” (qtd. in Nelson 55). The public is no longer a citizen shaping its own culture. It is now a passive receiver, deceived and turned into a mere consumer (The Strength to Resist). A Marxist approach to this phenomenon would hold that magazines are used to propagate ideologies beneficial to the interest of the elite. For example, because the model that is portrayed is impossible to achieve, it maintains the mass into a perpetual struggle. Indeed, consumers are only buying the appearances of success. And by doing so, they contribute to a consumerist and individualist trend in spite of their community and traditional values. The consumerism purpose of magazines prevails over ones expected by their readers. Readers are not benefitting from reading magazines any more. Instead, they are fed with unhealthy influences and unrealistic goals which have damaging effect on how they see themselves. Indeed, the idea behind reinforcing stereotypes, imposing models, and creating needs for self-improvement is that it will make readers want to buy the products that magazines offer. Continuous consumption is then the real message behind magazines’ texts.

Works Cited

"Body Image: Advertising and Magazines." MediaSmarts. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

Cosmopolitan Oct. 2012. Print

ELLE Canada Nov. 2012. Print.

Good Housekeeping Sept. 2012. Print.

Holmes, Anna. "Memo To Women's Magazine Editors: White Women Hate Themselves After Reading Your Magazines." Jezebel. N.p., 30 Mar. 2007. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

InStyle Aug. 2012. Print

Killing Us Softly 4. Jean Kilbourne. Media Education Foundation, 2010. Film.

Marie Claire Dec. 2012. Print.

Matsa, Katerina-Eva, Jane Sasseen, and Amy Mitchell. "Are Hopes for Tablets Overdone?" The State of the News Media 2013. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013.

Matsa, Katerina-Eva, Jane Sasseen, and Amy Mitchell. "By the Numbers." The State of the News Media 2013. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013.

Men’s Health Oct. 2012. Print.

The Strength to Resist. Dir. Margaret Lazarus. Perf. Gloria Steinem, Gail Dines, Carol Gilligan, Catherine Steiner-Adair, Valerie Batts, Jamila Capitman and Amy Richards. Cambridge Documentary Films, 2001. DVD.

Seventeen Mar. 2013. Print.

Shape Oct. 2012. Print.

Tiggemann, Marika, and Janet Polivy. "Upward and Downward: Social Comparison Processing of Thin Idealized Media Images." Psychology of Women Quarterly 34.4 (2010): 356-364. wiley.com. Web. 18 Mar. 2013.

Vogue Nov. 2012. Print.

Women’s Health December 2012. Print.

 

The Contemporary Marxist Revolution

Karl Marx has been one of the most influential thinkers in social sciences. His writings have been reinterpreted and criticized many times and have periodically lost and gained popularity. Nowadays, because of the increase in inequality, Marx's theories are regaining popularity. However, as relevant as some of the theories still are, the social context has changed: the working class, which is now called the "middle class", has become comfortable within the capitalist system. It is now able to enjoy benefits such as lower hours of work, higher wages, security within their work environment and the membership of unions which are protecting their interests as workers. Besides, with the development of the communication tools and the Media, the ideology superstructure is even more powerful and ingrained in the public's mind. Even though the working class has become more educated and aware about its social circumstance, it is lacking the extreme conditions that would trigger a revolution. However, these extreme conditions could arise if the current trends that define our modern world continually increase. In the following essay, I will try to demonstrate the possibility of a future social and political revolution within the most advanced capitalist countries, which would cease capitalism globally, notably through culture and as a reaction to the collapse of the economy and further destruction of the environment.

It is unfortunately necessary to summarize Marx's theory of revolution as it has, many times, been deformed and misinterpreted (maybe because of its complexity, maybe because of its inconvenience?). Marx did not expect a sudden realisation from the proletariat of the different contradiction of the capitalist system. First, Marx predicted periodic economic crises which would be more frequent, severe and less likely to correct themselves in the most mature capitalist society (Ball, 2009: p.127). These crises have clearly happened recently in the most advanced countries, in particular with the 2011 bailout in the U.S. and in Canada and now with the crisis in the European Union. Indeed, the most advanced countries seem more fragile by the fact that their stability exclusively depends on the welfare of their economy. The most advanced countries are then forced to cover the expense of the failure of their system with social wealth which contributes in the increase of federal debts (Truscello, 2011). These short term solutions, which worsen the situation in the long term, indicate a potential future collapse of economy in at least one of the predominant countries which subscribe to such practices. Due to globalisation, such a collapse would eventually lead into a global financial collapse. Greece has been the first country to experience such circumstances so far and the social repercussions of the crisis are such that the country still has not been able to replace its former government.

The second step, according to Marx's theory of revolution, consists in the "Immiseration of the Proletariat". Unemployment, being the major consequence of a financial crisis, is currently also increased by the mechanization of our means of production (New Future Media, 2012) and the delocalization of the means of production (due to globalization). However, I would like to highlight two benefits of unemployment. Firstly, it forces people to find alternatives to the capitalist way of life. Indeed, during the 2009 crisis in France, new trends such as the exchange of goods and services, and the share of facilities and accommodation emerged. Furthermore, a study showed that during the crisis, French people became more solidary (Le Parisien, 2009). These different trends, however, do not help the economy and, as they become more popular, the economy will be less necessary. As suggested by Roger Sue, people's internalization of values (namely of the individual, freedom and equality) brought social changes including the appearance of many associations which is justified by the fact that they offer an "alternative to the public service and the market" (2001, p.87). People would eventually learn to support each other and to work together to provide what the system has failed to give them. The Western culture, which is the most influencing in the world, would then slowly change into a culture closer to nature and closer to others, in other words more human. Beside the reaction to the crisis, we can already observe influential parts of our culture manifesting to start this change: artists (such as Banksy in the UK), celebrities (such as George Clooney), subcultures (such as the hipster trend) and popular movies (such as Avatar) are raising the awareness of the mass about these human values. The second benefit of a crisis brings us to the next step in Marx's Theory of Revolution: the "Rise of Revolutionary Class Consciousness". Indeed, the consequences of a crisis forces people to "reflect critically on the causes of their misery" (Ball, 2009: p.128). I believe that we are slowly experiencing this phase: people are being critical of the system. They are starting to question its fundamental values and are finally realize the capitalism's contradictions. From this realization, Marx predicted the emergence of strikes, boycotts, protests, etc. (which we are experiencing at the moment, e.g. the Occupy Wall Street movement) into a unified force and more militant movement (Ball, 2009: p.128). Marx then suggested three possibilities for the "Seizure of the State Power": a general strike, a civil war, or a free and fair election. It is plain to see that we are currently still experiencing each of the above steps of Marx's Revolution Theory. Knowing whether they will lead to a general strike, a civil war, an election or a combination of these, is a matter of time. Indeed, the situation is such that a future change in our society seems very likely to happen and because of the current environmental condition due to the capitalist system, a radical change is now necessary.

Undeniably, the environmental crisis could play an important role in a future revolution. The increasing pollution, which has become a broadly diffused topic and which is slowing starting to impact people's lives, is forcing them to realise the perversions of a capitalist way of live. Therefore, people are encouraged to change their behaviours and to be more conscious of their actions. The environmental issues would also raise prices including those of basic needs, like food and energy. Consequently, people would look for alternative markets for these goods. What is important here, is to notice that the owners of these basic needs (essentially the means of production) is the bourgeoisie and that finding alternative markets for their supply would contribute to shifting their power (or at least lessen it). In the past, alternatives to powerful industries (such as the energy and the pharmaceutical industries) have been repressed. For example, some of the notes of Nikola Tesla (who discovered free energy) have been kept secret by the US government (Cheney & Uth, 1999: p.164). Indeed, the bourgeoisie is trying to hold on to its power.

Marx believed that a revolution could only be successful after capitalism has been reached globally (Enns, 2012). This situation is however undesirable because of the environmental impact that it would have. However, if the capitalism system would come to an end in the most advanced capitalist countries, the process of globalization would also terminate because globalisation only finds its purpose within a capitalist economy. And as globalization would end, the developing countries would stop being exploited. As suggested in the Communist Manifesto: "as the exploitation of one individual by another is put an end to, the exploitation of one nation by another will also be put an end to" (Marx & Engels, 1998: p.58). It is useful to notice that most developing countries have much stronger communitarian values. Indeed according to a 1999 study, "collectivist cultures make up about 70 per cent of the world's population" (Goleman, n.d.). The economy in these countries is weaker because the capitalist system by which our economy functions is based on individualistic values and because a communitarian system require less wealth from its participants. The misfortune of developing countries then comes from their exploitation by the richer countries since the colonial era and now through globalization (Cook, 2012).

We have seen important change in the Western culture since the last decades. The awareness of certain persons in our society, in particular of the most educated, has brought certain cultural movements such as second hand shopping, vintage, home vegetable gardens, vegetarianism, etc. to fight against capitalist ideas and power. These cultural movements however, as their popularity increase, have the power to change people's behaviours and directly harm the capitalist corporations that rely on an excessive consumption of the mass. As explained by Wendy Griswold in "Cultures and Societies in a Changing World", culture emerges from people and then has the power to change their society through trends and movements (2004, p.16). For example the hippie movement of the 1960s was a protest against conformity. As people created the hippie culture from this point of view, the culture then impacted their society and brought concrete movements such as the protest against the Vietnam War and the spread of drugs. From this theory, we can imagine that the creation of these new cultural trends will have a concrete impact on society. A revolution would then not come from the government in the form of a political party, but from the people themselves, as an answer to a system that has failed, a peaceful way of finally making they voice heard. Indeed, it doesn’t make sense for the people to protest against the system as they are the principle factor within it. Without the mass and its actions, the system could not operate. The solution then lies in the alteration of our behaviours. We hold the power, being greater in number, to decide where we invest our money, our time, our energy and our life into. By trying to look for a solution within the system we contribute to perpetuate its perversion and allowed the exercise of its power over us.

Karl Marx's theory has not faded with time. On the contrary, his theory of revolution seems to have started its process. According to it, we are now at a time where people need to realize and take control of their power. It is impossible to predict with certainty that such thing will happen. However, as the consequences of crises impoverish the working class and as the environmental situation degrades, it is possible that the working class will concretely try to find solutions to fix its situation (or that it will no longer be able to feed the capitalist system) and that it will change its behaviour due to the environment issue. Furthermore, the cultural changes that we have experienced within the last decades in the most advanced capitalist countries are a reflection of a rise of some awareness within the working class. These cultural changes, if they transform into new values, could carry the hope of a possible social and politic change which would lead to a global change due to the importance and the power of developed countries.

Work Cited

Ball, T., Dagger, R., Christian, W. & Campbell, C. (2010). Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal. Toronto: Pearson Canada.

Cheney, M. & Uth, R. (1999). Tesla: Master of Lightning. New York: Barnes & Noble Books.

Cook, G. (2012). Development Dependency Theory. Social Structures. Capilano University, North Vancouver.

Enns, S. (2012). Concepts and Theories of Society: Marx Part 2. [Power Point slides]. Retrieved from http://moodle.capilanou.ca/pluginfile.php/29281/mod_resource/content/1/Marx_Part_2_student_.ppt

Goleman, D. (n.d.). The Rise of Individualism: a Most Western Trait. The Vancouver Sun.

Marx, K. & Engels, F. (1848). Manifesto of the Communist Party. In Hobsbawm (Ed.), The Communist Manifesto: a Modern Edition. London: Verso.

New Future Media (2012). I Lost My Job. Retrieved from http://newfuturemedia.net/

Le Parisien (2009). Les Français Misent d'abord sur la Solidarité Face à la Crise. Retrieved from http://www.leparisien.fr/une/les-francais-misent-d-abord-sur-la-solidarite-face-a-la-crise-13-04-2009-477097.php

Sue, R. (2001). The Rise of Associations and New Forms of Solidarity. The Future of Values (2004). UNESCO.

Truscello, M. (2011). Capitalism Is The Crisis: a Documentary Film. Retrieved from http://www.capitalismisthecrisis.net/watchthefilm.html

American Imperialism

                 The roots of the American imperialistic goal date from long ago. The Founding Fathers believed that the US had the responsibility to “spread its values and institutions in a world dominated by anti-liberal forces” (Layne and Thayer 8). But in more recent times, George W. Bush declared that US “seek[s] to shape the world” (“National Security” 2006). Indeed, the argument of the Empire is that it has the right and the obligation to use its power to shape the international environment to its own advantage by actively promoting American principles: democracy, free markets, and respect for liberty. Therefore, almost as a remaining retort to the Soviet Union or as prevention against the spread of communism, the US is implementing its model, country, after country. But its purpose for doing so exceeds the realist approach that would suggest a search for security. This argument is supported by the inconsistencies between the hegemon’s principles and its actions which suppose some further interest, notably economical. As the examples in the domain of American imperialism aspirations are innumerable, the following essay will look into three dissociate grounds illustrating the American imperialistic ambition: firstly, in regards to the way it deals with “enemy” countries, radically different from its ideal; secondly, in the context of the hegemon’s relations with democratic developing countries; and thirdly, in its relationship with allies in the Western world. The following essay is then meant to offer a glimpse into the American imperialistic ambition: shaping the world in its image, for the benefit of its own prosperity. 

The Middle East is one of these regions of the world which shares little similarities with the US. Indeed, very few Arab countries adopt a democratic form of government and the terrorist groups implemented in this region are even a threat to the security of the US.  However, because of the interest the Middle East represents for the hyperpower (notably in its resources), the US has been, for long, working on altering these attributes. The State Department spends about $183 million a year to support democracy in the Middle East through the Middle East Partnership Initiative and the National Endowment for Democracy (McInerney). Other soft power tools include “Radio Sawa radio programing” and “Al Hurra television station” which attempt to influence the public opinion in the Middle East (Layne and Thayer 27). On the hard power side, US military has been assisting countries like Afghanistan and Iraq to adopt democratic governments. Without this transition, the region would lack the foundation on which to build the rest of the American model. Indeed, according to the democratic peace theory, democratic states are less likely to launch wars against each other (“Peace and Democracy”). Following this principle, democracy then brings security after which a free market economy and a spread of American ideas can occur. In Iraq, for example, as observed by Christopher Layne, Professor of International Affairs, the intention to overthrow Saddam Hussein was the real aim of the Bush II administration’s policy as it had been formulated by the President, even before the start of the war (qtd. in Layne and Thayer 88). Layne argues that “9/11 opened the door for the Bush II administration to attempt to incorporate the Middle East into the American Empire” (61). Indeed, the hope was that a democratic and “Pro-US” Iraq would then influence the rest of the region (Harvey 19). However, in terms of democracy, historical events in Iran show that this transition does not constitute an absolute priority for the hegemon. Indeed, there, the US had overthrown the democratically elected Mossadegh after he had nationalized foreign-owned oil companies, and, in its place, positioned the dictatorial Shah (Harvey 9). These inconsistencies between its promises and its actions clearly illustrate the real priority of the hegemon.

When dealing with developing countries that have already adopted a democratic political system, the US prioritises a different issue. Here, according to the American model and the “stage theory” approach to development, the focus is placed on assisting these countries with the adoption of free trades agreements. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is a major player in this process as it is responsible for supervising the regulation of all exportations ("Understanding the WTO"). The majority of the WTO members are developing countries who expect an enhancing of their export from their membership but who also depend on it to fund of their public sector (Baylis, Smith, and Owens 447). However, the benefits of this organization are broadly criticised for their asymmetry. Indeed, by pushing for free trade agreements through the WTO, the US is enforcing globalization. And as the WTO focuses mainly on the most advanced sectors of the world economy, the advanced industrialized countries, like the US, are able to keep most of the economic gains from globalization for themselves (Baylis, Smith, and Owens 446). For example, the WTO enforces free trade in the area of intellectual property which clearly benefits developed countries. On the other hand, it blocks free trade in areas like agriculture which could benefit developing countries (Baylis, Smith, and Owens 449). Furthermore, the WTO, more than anything, is a tool for global investors to have the assurance that the money they invest in developing countries that are members is assured to remain safe (Baylis, Smith, and Owens 447). The WTO is also criticised for its democratic flaws: the US has much power over the policies of the WTO as the organization’s credibility is depends on the hegemon’s membership (Baylis, Smith, and Owens 448). Furthermore, developing countries are forced into accepting policies that clearly ran counter to their interests through the “Single Undertaking” process which forces countries to agree to “a package of reforms in its entirety for fear that the ongoing round of multilateral trade talks will collapse if they do not” (Baylis, Smith, and Owens 448). Moreover, the US and the EU have a considerable advantage in the decisions of free trade agreements as the exports of many developing countries are oriented mostly towards them. Developing countries, therefore, would not dare challenge their decisions.

Western countries share many similarities with the US. They are democratic, do not represent a threat to the US’ security, and embrace, mostly, a free market economy. However, the final stage of indoctrination has not been fully completed. Indeed, culturally, western countries distinguish themselves from the US. Here, intentionally or not, the US exercises its “soft power” to tame these differences. The soft power of the US can be observed in its ability to getting others to do what it wants through the attractiveness of its ideas and its culture (“Soft Power”). Indeed, the key to the success of the American Empire in the developed countries is that people welcome American ideas. The most influential vehicle for the American ideas is undeniably its film and television industries. However, the international reputation of the American education is also a great source of soft power. The public sees this influence coming from below as opposed to being imposed by an authority and this provides the US with considerable power as Western countries are democratic, and, therefore, the influence done on the population is reflected in its political vote. On a diplomatic level, American soft power is also found in the fact that other countries will agree with the decisions of the US because they are seeking favors from the hegemon (Layne and Thayer 26). Clearly, it is in no state’s advantage to be opposed to the most powerful state.

Political scientists are still divided regarding the American imperialism and the role it plays in international relations. The advocate of the American leadership believe that the benefits of having a persistent American Empire is worth its costs as it “provides stability, allows democracy to spread, furthers economic prosperity, and makes possible humanitarian assistance” (Layne and Thayer 41). Indeed, there is no other state or international organization that can provide such intervention in the world. The UN, for example, cannot because it lacks the military and economic power of the US. Therefore, they argue that “America should use its hard and soft power to intervene in failed states like Afghanistan, and rogue states like Iraq, […] to ensure that these states no longer serve as terrorist havens or are sources instability and aggression” (Layne and Thayer 52). These partisans look at the Liberal International Economic Order (LIEO) (which includes the role of the WTO) as a network that promotes global economic growth, and includes developing countries. Finally, the advocates of the American Empire argue that it will always have an exaggerated impact on smaller countries due to its power, and that this power is, in fact, the cause of the deterioration of the American image for the international community, as it generates resentment and jealously (Layne and Thayer 46).

The opposite view argues that the dominance of the US allows it to be “indifferent to its allies, ignoring international intuitions like the United Nations, and acting in defiance of international law and norms” (Layne and Thayer 51). This attitude results in actions that are harmful to other countries interests. For example, the Jury of Conscience of the World Tribunal on Iraq established that the invasion and occupation of Iraq was illegal and that they were devastating to human security and the Iraqi society, it also deplored the failure of the UN Security Council to intervene against the illegal war and for “allowing the US to dominate the United Nations” ("Declaration of the Jury of Conscience World Tribunal on Iraq - Istanbul June 23 - 27, 2005"). Furthermore, these actions deteriorate the image of the US in the international community. The opposite view also argues that American primacy sometimes finds its own security threatened by its too powerful position in the world. For example, 9/11 attacks were a violent reaction against America’s primacy, and specifically against its imperial ambition in the Middle East. There, the expansion of the American presence for the purpose of overthrowing regimes will not make America more secure from terrorist attacks as radical Islamists are full of resentment against its primacy and the Islamic public opinion could still promote war (Layne and Thayer 94). For the anti-American empire, the American mission of extending democracy worldwide is not altruistic: “it grew out of the belief that American liberties could not long exist at home unless the world was made safe for ‘democracy’” (qtd. in Layne and Thayer 84). This self-centred interest is also found in the logic of the democratic peace theory and is the motive which drove Americans to create the LIEO.

The US applies different methods of dealing with other countries depending on which stage of indoctrination they are in. As discussed above, the US has adopted a radical approach using hard power to try transforming the Middle East for the benefit of American security and for its interest in the region’s resources. The relationship between the US and the Third World has taken an economic development which benefits the American economy and compromises the interests of developing countries. In regards to the rest of the Western world, the US is finalising its indoctrination through soft power tools aiming to bend these countries’ interests towards Americans’. However, different states have different cultures, history, priorities, and interests, which all play a role in shaping their politics. Therefore, forcing a standardisation through globalization, militarisation, and power relations influence is not a reasonable strategy.  Instead, the hegemon should promote a “lead by example” approach. Indeed, the respect of international laws and other states’ differences, the decrease of its military power, and a genuine help towards developing countries would increase the respect to the leading power and, therefore, increase its influence in the world. Fortunately, the Obama administration’s foreign policy is, to a certain extent, leaning towards such solution (“National Security” 2010). However, the remaining of US’ strategy to global control could still lead to a global political repercussion against the hegemon’s dominant position in the world.

Works Cited

Baylis, John, Steve Smith, and Patricia Owens. The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations. 5th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.

"Declaration of the Jury of Conscience World Tribunal on Iraq - Istanbul June 23 - 27, 2005." Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. N.d. Web. 3 Dec. 2012.

Harvey, David. The New Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print.

Layne, Christopher, and Bradley A. Thayer. American Empire: a Debate. New York: Routledge, 2007. Print.

McInerney, Stephen. "The Federal Budget and Appropriations for the Fiscal Year 2013”. p. 7-13. POMED - Project on Middle East Democracy. 12 July 2012. Web. 20 Nov. 2012.

"National Security Strategy of the United States." p. 2. White House. 15 May 2010. Web. 12 Nov. 2012.

"National Security Strategy of the United States." p. 3. Commonwealth Institute. 15 Mar. 2006. Web. 12 Nov. 2012.

"Peace and Democracy." Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 18 November 2012.

"Understanding the WTO." World Trade Organization. 24 Aug. 2012. Web. 3 Dec. 2012.